Looking for a tail-wagging way to help your pup chill out, move easier, or simply age with swagger? You’re not alone. Google searches for “CBD dog treats” have exploded in the past three years, and boutique brands like Dope Dog have trotted to the front of the pack with artisanal biscuits, chews, and drops that promise the calming power of hemp without the “high.” But before you toss a peanut-butter-calming nugget into the cart, it pays to sniff out what separates a truly therapeutic treat from a glorified snack. In this deep dive we’ll decode labels, explore extraction methods, and unpack the safety protocols that separate premium CBD canine supplements from the kibble-cluttered crowd. Grab the leash—class is in session.
Top 10 Dope Dog Treats
Detailed Product Reviews
1. Milk-Bone Soft & Chewy Dog Treats, Beef & Filet Mignon Recipe, 25 Ounce
Milk-Bone Soft & Chewy Dog Treats, Beef & Filet Mignon Recipe, 25 Ounce
Overview: Milk-Bone’s Soft & Chewy treats combine the brand’s century-old heritage with modern palatability, offering real chuck roast in a tender format that dogs of all sizes can enjoy.
What Makes It Stand Out: The 25-ounce value container delivers authentic beef flavor at under $10 per pound—uncommon for premium treats. The 12 added vitamins and minerals transform these from mere snacks into functional supplements.
Value for Money: At roughly 18 cents per ounce, you’re getting restaurant-quality beef cuts typically reserved for human consumption. The resealable container maintains freshness for months, eliminating waste.
Strengths and Weaknesses: The soft texture works perfectly for senior dogs or those with dental issues. However, the treats contain some artificial flavors and preservatives. The generous portion might tempt overfeeding, and calorie-conscious owners should note each piece packs 25 calories.
Bottom Line: If you want wholesome American-made treats without premium pricing, these chuck roast bites deliver. Just monitor portion sizes and consider them for special occasions rather than daily rewards.
2. Good ‘N’ Tasty Soft And Crunchy Variety Pack, 3 Ounces, Treats For Dogs
Good ‘N’ Tasty Soft And Crunchy Variety Pack, 3 Ounces, Treats For Dogs
Overview: This pint-sized variety pack offers gourmet flavors—chicken, duck, and beef—in unique dual-texture rolls that graduate from soft exteriors to crunchy centers during chewing.
What Makes It Stand Out: The innovative texture combination keeps dogs mentally stimulated longer than single-texture treats. At just 3 ounces, it’s perfect for testing before committing to bulk sizes.
Value for Money: At $22.35 per pound, these sit in premium territory. You’re paying for gourmet sourcing and artisanal preparation, comparable to boutique pet bakery pricing.
Strengths and Weaknesses: The compact rolls suit training sessions, and the protein rotation prevents palate fatigue. However, the tiny package disappears quickly with medium or large breeds. Some dogs might reject certain flavors in the assortment.
Bottom Line: Ideal for pampering toy breeds or discerning small dogs. For multi-dog households or aggressive chewers, invest in larger quantities. The variety pack excels as a special occasion treat rather than an everyday staple.
3. Hemp Calming Chews for Dogs with Anxiety and Stress – 170 Dog Calming Treats – Storms, Barking, Separation – Valerian Root – Melatonin – Hemp Oil – Dog Anxiety Relief – Made in USA | Soft Chews
Hemp Calming Chews for Dogs with Anxiety and Stress – 170 Dog Calming Treats
Overview: These duck-flavored soft chews blend hemp oil, valerian root, and melatonin to naturally ease canine anxiety during thunderstorms, vet visits, or separation scenarios.
What Makes It Stand Out: The 170-count supply lasts small dogs nearly six months. The vet-formulated ratio of calming agents targets both situational stress and chronic joint discomfort—dual functionality rare at this price point.
Value for Money: At roughly 13 cents per chew, you’re accessing pharmaceutical-grade ingredients at supplement pricing. Comparable prescriptions cost $40+ monthly.
Strengths and Weaknesses: The palatable duck flavor disguises medicinal ingredients effectively. Results typically manifest within 30-45 minutes without sedation. However, effectiveness varies by breed and anxiety severity. Large dogs require multiple chews, reducing value.
Bottom Line: For dogs with mild-to-moderate anxiety, these offer safe, affordable relief. Severe cases may require veterinary intervention. Always pair with behavioral training for lasting results rather than relying solely on chews.
4. MON2SUN Dog Treats, Triple Flavor 6 Inch Chicken Liver Duck and Chicken Wrapped Rawhide Sticks, Teeth Cleaning Snacks for Medium Dogs, 17.6 oz (10 Count-Pack of 1)
MON2SUN Dog Treats, Triple Flavor 6 Inch Chicken Liver Duck and Chicken Wrapped Rawhide Sticks
Overview: These 6-inch rawhide sticks feature triple-protein wrapping—chicken liver, duck, and chicken—designed for medium breeds seeking dental benefits alongside gourmet flavors.
What Makes It Stand Out: The 20+ years of rawhide expertise shows in consistent quality control. Each stick undergoes natural processing without chemical whitening, while the triple-layer wrapping ensures dogs work through proteins before accessing the collagen-rich hide.
Value for Money: At $2.60 per stick, you’re investing in both entertainment and dental care. Comparable single-protein chews cost $3-4 each at pet specialty stores.
Strengths and Weaknesses: The extended chew time (15-25 minutes) satisfies natural gnawing instincts while reducing plaque. However, rawhide poses choking risks for aggressive chewers. The strong meat aroma might stain carpets during enthusiastic chewing sessions.
Bottom Line: Supervised chewing sessions with these sticks can improve dental health and reduce boredom. Remove when the hide becomes swallowable-sized. Better suited for methodical chewers than power-chewing breeds.
5. Full Moon All Natural Human Grade Dog Treats, Essential Beef Savory Bites, 14 Ounce
Full Moon All Natural Human Grade Dog Treats, Essential Beef Savory Bites, 14 Ounce
Overview: Full Moon elevates dog treats to human standards, using USDA-certified kitchens and free-range beef to create grain-free, soy-free bites that meet the same safety standards as your dinner.
What Makes It Stand Out: The ingredient list reads like a health food recipe—free-range beef, cassava root, celery, rosemary extract—no mystery meats or unpronounceable chemicals. The human-grade certification means every production batch passes FDA inspections.
Value for Money: At $17.13 per pound, you’re paying for ethical sourcing and human-grade facilities. Comparable to organic beef jerky pricing, but formulated specifically for canine nutrition.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Dogs with grain allergies thrive on these limited-ingredient bites. The small, heart-shaped pieces work perfectly for training. However, the premium pricing limits everyday use for budget-conscious owners. The absence of preservatives requires refrigeration after opening.
Bottom Line: For health-focused owners who scrutinize every ingredient, these justify the investment. Consider them the Whole Foods of dog treats—expensive but aligned with clean-eating values. Rotate with more economical options for daily rewards.
6. Buddy Biscuits 3.5 lbs. Bag of Crunchy Dog Treats Made with Natural Peanut Butter
Overview: Buddy Biscuits delivers a 3.5-lb value bag of crunchy, gingerbread-man-shaped dog biscuits flavored with natural peanut butter. Baked in the USA, the treats target medium-to-large dogs but promise universal appeal across breeds and ages through their simple formulation and fun design.
What Makes It Stand Out: Few competitors combine this price-per-pound with a five-ingredient list that nixes corn, soy, and artificial additives. The kid-friendly cookie cutter shape invites interaction between children and pets, while the sheer bulk size limits re-ordering hassles for multi-dog households on a budget.
Value for Money: At roughly $3.85 per pound, Buddy Biscuits undercuts most natural-brand biscuits while still offering oven-baked quality and American sourcing. Multi-pet owners or anyone feeding neighborhood strays will appreciate not having to ration a bag this size.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Pros include minimal processing, easy-to-read ingredients, and crunchy texture that helps reduce tartar. Cons are wheat content that rules out truly grain-sensitive dogs, large biscuits that small mouths may struggle to finish, and limited protein for training value.
Bottom Line: If you want an affordable, low-guilt pantry staple for daily treating, Buddy Biscuits deserve a spot on the shelf. Reserve ultra-motivating, high-value rewards elsewhere, but keep these on hand for everyday tail-wagging happiness.
7. BADLANDS RANCH – Superfood Bite, Freeze-Dried Raw Dog Treats – Protein Rich, Train & Reward, Traceable Single Ingredient by Katherine Heigl (Beef Liver)
Overview: BADLANDS RANCH Superfood Bites are single-ingredient, freeze-dried beef-liver morsels marketed by Katherine Heigl as a training reward. Each nugget locks in raw nutrition without additives, targeting health-conscious owners and picky or allergy-prone dogs.
What Makes It Stand Out: The freeze-dry process maximizes flavor concentration, turning a modest cube into a coveted “jackpot” treat. The single-protein, organ-meat profile appeals to raw-feeding enthusiasts, while the light weight delivers big value per nibble—perfect for pocketing during walks.
Value for Money: A $63.96-per-pound sticker shock is offset by the fact that a 0.25-oz training bite stretches to dozens of rewards. You trade filler bulk for nutrition density, making each penny buy protein instead of starch.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Pros are hypoallergenic formulation, irresistible aroma, and negligible calories per piece. Cons include expensive upfront cost, extreme per-pound pricing, and tendency to crush into powder if stored at the bottom of a purse.
Bottom Line: For focused training sessions or coaxing fussy eaters, these super-aromatic liver bites are worth every cent. Buy sparingly, use judiciously, and keep a backup crumb jar to sprinkle over kibble—zero waste, full impact.
8. Full Moon All Natural Human Grade Dog Treats, Essential Duck Savory Sticks 22.0 oz
Overview: Full Moon Essential Duck Savory Sticks elevate dog treats into the realm of human-edible snacks. Crafted from USDA-inspected, cage-free duck and baked in small batches without grains, glycerin, or fillers, the 22-oz bag markets itself as gourmet yet guilt-free.
What Makes It Stand Out: Calling the product “human-grade” isn’t just marketing; the sticks are produced in USDA-certified kitchens, letting owners share confidence with their own food standards. The jerky-like texture and robust duck aroma create an immediate high-value reward for training finicky dogs.
Value for Money: At about $14.54 per pound, pricing sits between discount kibble biscuits and boutique freeze-dried selections. The superior sourcing justifies the leap for health-minded shoppers while remaining attainable compared with meat-only specialty brands.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Pros include clean ingredient deck, meat-first formulation, and versatility—break into bits for training or serve strips for longer chewing. Cons are moderately high cost per bag and shorter shelf life after opening compared with dry biscuits.
Bottom Line: If ingredient integrity tops your priority list but specialized freeze-dried organ meat feels extravagant, these duck sticks offer a wallet-friendly middle ground. Stock up, seal tight, and you’ll win recall cues with meaty perfection.
9. Bocce’s Bakery Oven Baked Duck Recipe Treats for Dogs, Wheat-Free Everyday Dog Treats, Made with Real Ingredients, Baked in The USA, All-Natural Soft & Chewy Cookies, Duck, 6 oz
Overview: Bocce’s Bakery Duck Recipe treats are wheat-free, soft-baked cookies aimed at everyday spoiling. Each six-ounce pouch blends oat flour, duck, rolled oats, and cranberries into 9-calorie chews sized for puppies, seniors, or choosy pets.
What Makes It Stand Out: Soft texture meets short ingredient list without tipping into specialty-diet price extremes. The bakery-cute branding and small-batch production lend an artisan vibe, while the pliability allows pill-stuffing or quick snapping into training micro-bites.
Value for Money: Roughly $20 per pound is steep compared with mass-market biscuits, but fair among softer, limited-ingredient options; you pay for tenderness and allergy-friendly formulation rather than raw meat.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Pros include gentle chewing experience, compact list of recognizable foods, and suitability for dogs missing molars. Cons are higher calorie-to-price ratio, modest protein content versus meat-heavy lines, and potential staleness if the pouch isn’t resealed.
Bottom Line: Keep these on hand when you need a tender, share-friendly biscuit that won’t aggravate grain-sensitive tummies. They won’t replace high-value training nuggets, yet they shine for bedtime snacks or disguising medication.
10. Dog Treats Duck Jerky 1.5 LB – Human Grade Pet Snacks – Natural High Protein Meat Dried Strips – Best Chews for Training Small & Large Dogs – Bulk Soft Pack
Overview: This 1.5-lb bulk pack of Dog Treats Duck Jerky comprises single-protein, human-grade duck strips dehydrated into chewy ribbons. Marketed as high-protein training aid and dental workout, the soft pack claims universal suitability for dogs ranging from toy breeds to giants.
What Makes It Stand Out: Pound-for-pound, it offers some of the cheapest human-grade jerky on the market, undercutting boutique brands while still supplying 100% muscle meat. Large volume plus resealable pouch appeals to multi-dog households or pet sitters who dispense rewards all day.
Value for Money: Breaking down to about $1 per ounce, the price approaches grocery-store chicken yet delivers exotic, lean duck. Training budgets stretch further because a small shred delivers flavor without many calories.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Pros include clean single protein, high palatability, chewy texture that reduces plaque, and bulk value. Cons are variability in strip thickness, occasional sharp crumbs at bag bottom, and a greasier feel than air-dried competitors.
Bottom Line: For trainers, boarders, or anyone tiring of frequent reorder clicks, this affordable duck jerky is a workhorse. Store a smaller supply in a jar for clean pockets and freeze the rest—wallet and tails win together.
Why CBD for Dogs Is More Than a Passing Trend
Veterinary researchers are racing to keep up with consumer demand, and early pilot studies from Colorado State University and Cornell already suggest that cannabidiol may support joint mobility, reduce seizure frequency, and blunt environmentally triggered stress responses in dogs. The 2018 Farm Bill legalized hemp-derived CBD at the federal level, opening the floodgates for pet-forward formulators. Still, the market remains a Wild West of milligram claims, carrier oils, and flavor enhancers. Knowing how CBD interacts with a dog’s endocannabinoid system—and why size, breed, and delivery method matter—will help you spend smarter and worry less.
The Dope Dog Brand Story: From California Kitchens to Canine Wellness
Born in a Venice Beach kitchen in 2017, Dope Dog started when founder Erin Marino baked a batch of vet-approved, full-spectrum biscuits for her anxious Catahoula, Cooper. Word spread among dog-park parents, and within 18 months the bootstrapped startup scaled to a GMP-certified facility in San Diego. Today the company touts third-party testing, single-farm hemp sourcing, and a “never-ever” list that skips corn, soy, artificial dyes, and added sugar—all while donating 1% of revenue to local rescue organizations. Understanding their ethos sets the table for evaluating product lines that range from mini-training rewards to high-potency mobility wafers.
Understanding CBD Spectrums: Full, Broad, or Isolate?
Full-spectrum oils retain a cornucopia of hemp compounds—CBD, trace THC (<0.3%), terpenes, flavonoids—creating an “entourage effect” theorized to amplify therapeutic benefit. Broad-spectrum strips out THC entirely while preserving other phytochemicals. Isolate is 99% pure CBD crystalline, flavorless and THC-free, but it may lack synergistic punch. Dope Dog formulates across all three spectrums; the trick is matching the spectrum to your dog’s sensitivity and any workplace (or sport-association) drug-testing policies that could target THC metabolites in urine.
Decoding Lab Reports: COAs You Can Trust
A certificate of analysis (COA) should be batch-specific, conducted by an ISO-17025-accredited lab, and easy to scan via QR code. Look for cannabinoid potency verified within ±10% of label claim, pesticide screens that read “ND” (none detected) at parts-per-billion levels, and a heavy-metal panel covering lead, arsenic, cadmium, and mercury. Microbial limits are equally critical—especially for aged or immune-compromised pups. Skip any company that claims “proprietary blend” as an excuse to redact actual milligram counts.
Bioavailability Basics: Why Delivery Method Affects Dosage
Biscuits must survive stomach acid and first-pass liver metabolism, meaning only 6–20% of the CBD reaches systemic circulation. Sublingual tinctures, absorbed through oral mucosa, can triple that range. Dope Dog’s baked treats factor this loss into label recommendations, but if you split biscuits for precise titration you could inadvertently under-dose. Understanding bioavailability helps you translate veterinarian-suggested milligrams into real-world serving sizes—no more guessing why yesterday’s “calm” cookie didn’t soothe the storm.
Hard Biscuits vs. Soft Chews: Texture, Shelf Life, and Digestibility
Hard biscuits generally pack lower moisture (6–8%), translating to 12–18-month shelf life without preservatives—great for intermittent use or travel. Soft chews clock in around 18–25% moisture, requiring natural mold inhibitors like cultured whey or rosemary extract, and expire sooner once the pouch is opened. Senior dogs with dental issues or tiny breeds prone to choking often do better with soft, break-apart formats. Factor climate too: in Gulf-state humidity, a resealable hard biscuit keeps better than a soft chew liable to bloom.
Joint and Mobility Formulas: What Science Says About Added Ingredients
Dope Dog’s mobility SKUs typically pair CBD with glucosamine, MSM, and wild-caught salmon oil—nutrients that independently support cartilage repair and modulate inflammatory cytokines like IL-6. Cornell’s 2020 randomized trial showed that 2 mg/kg of CBD twice daily improved canine gait scores within four weeks; when EPA/DHA omega-3s were co-administered, lameness decreased an extra 11%. Watch milligram overlap if your dog already receives standalone joint supplements to avoid GI upset.
Calming Blends: L-Theanine, Valerian, and Dosage Timing
A fireworks phobia or separation anxiety spike needs rapid action, but oral treats can require 45–90 minutes to peak. L-theanine (an amino acid in green tea) increases alpha-brain-wave activity, promoting relaxation without sedation. Valerian root bolsters GABA signaling, though smells…well, like dirty gym socks. Combining 0.5 mg/kg CBD with 15 mg L-theanine 60 minutes before stressors has become a popular off-label protocol among boarded veterinary behaviorists. Always trial a half-dose first—some dogs paradoxically excite on valerian.
Skin & Coat SKUs: Omega Fatty Acids, Zinc, and Vitamin E Ratios
Itchy skin is the #1 vet visit complaint, and CBD’s TRPV1 receptor modulation can curb neurogenic itch. But cannabinoids are only part of the puzzle. A 5:1 ratio of EPA to DHA (total 750 mg/oz) plus 2 ppm dietary zinc and 10 IU/kg vitamin E synergizes to strengthen keratin layers. Dope Dog coats soft chews with cold-pressed hempseed oil—not CBD-rich extract—to avoid double-dipping cannabinoids while still delivering gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), a plant-based anti-inflammatory often deficient in chicken-heavy kibble diets.
Grain-Free vs. Ancient Grain Debate: Marketing or Medical Necessity?
Fewer than 1% of dogs suffer true grain allergies (it’s proteins—beef, dairy, chicken—that dominate). The FDA’s 2018 alert on diet-associated dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) implicated boutique grain-free foods heavy in peas, lentils, and potatoes. Dope Dog’s new “ancient grain” line swaps potatoes for gluten-free oats and quinoa, hedging consumer fear while keeping glycemic load moderate. Unless your vet has diagnosed a grain sensitivity, either base is fine; focus instead on total cannabinoid count and sourcing transparency.
Human-Grade vs. Feed-Grade: Does It Matter for Safety?
“Human-grade” means every ingredient, and the facility that processes it, meets FDA standards for human-edible food. Feed-grade facilities can legally include condemned meats and higher allowable limits of mold-based toxins like aflatoxin. Dope Dog bakes in a USDA-inspected human-food plant, but remember: human-grade does not imply human-tested cannabinoid dosages. Dogs metabolize CBD faster and have more CB1 receptors in the cerebellum, so resist sharing your own gummies—the canine dose is markedly lower.
Price Per Milligram: Calculating True Value Beyond Bag Size
A $29 pouch may look cheaper than a $49 tin, but extract purity can swing value wildly. Divide total package cost by total CBD milligrams to get price per mg. In 2025, expect to pay $0.10–$0.18 per mg for organic, full-spectrum biscuits in resealable, UV-blocking pouches. Anything under $0.07 should trigger suspicion that the hemp is imported without U.S. pesticide oversight—or that the label is flat-out inflated.
Traveling With CBD: TSA, State Lines, and Airline Policies
Hemp-derived CBD is federally legal, yet TSA agents are not chemists. Carry COAs printed on company letterhead, keep products in original packaging, and abide by the 3-1-1 rule for liquids if packing tinctures. Internationally, leave the CBD at home: countries like the U.K. classify any trace-THC product as a controlled substance, and Japan bans even 0% THC isolate without an import license.
Side Effects & Drug Interactions: When to Call the Vet
Most adverse events are mild: somnolence, loose stool, or a transient drop in blood pressure shown by light-headed sway. Reduce dose by 50% and monitor. More concerning is CBD’s competitive inhibition of hepatic cytochrome P450 enzymes—similar to grapefruit—which can elevate levels of anti-seizure meds like phenobarbital or potassium bromide. Always give your vet the full biscuit ingredient panel before adding CBD to an existing protocol.
Dosing Guidelines: Weight Tiers, Frequency, and Titration Scripts
Start low, go slow: 0.2 mg/kg twice daily for three days, then escalate in 0.25 mg/kg increments until desired effect. Top therapeutic range cited in literature is 1–2 mg/kg BID, but some osteoarthritic giants plateau at 0.5 mg/kg. Split doses to keep plasma levels steadier, and re-evaluate every four weeks—dogs on NSAIDs may need lower maintenance as CBD synergy kicks in. Track results in a journal: appetite, gait score, stool quality, and anxiety triggers.
Storing Treats for Maximum Potency: Light, Oxygen, and Temperature
CBD degrades fastest when exposed to oxygen plus UV light, losing up to 15% potency per month at room temperature. A tinted, vacuum-sealed pouch stored under 70°F (21°C) preserves 90% label claim for 12 months. For bulk buyers, refrigerate (not freeze) unopened bags; freezing causes trichome fracture and moisture condensation that can create off flavors dogs refuse.
Sustainability and Ethical Hemp: Sun-Grown vs. Indoor Power Drain
Dope Dog’s hemp is outdoor sun-grown in Oregon’s Rogue Valley, irrigated via gravity-fed pivot systems and certified regenerative organic—meaning cover crops and pollinator strips replace tilling and synthetic inputs. Sun cultivation slashes energy draw by 95% compared with indoor grows, translating to a carbon-negative profile that eco-minded pet parents prize. Ask any supplier for farm GPS coordinates; legitimate brands will share soil tests to prove it.
Reading Between Buzzwords: “Vet-Formulated,” “Nano-Enhanced,” and More
“Vet-formulated” is meaningless without diplomas and cannabinoid research citations—look for DACVIM or DACVB credentials. “Nano-enhanced” usually indicates liposomal encapsulation that reduces particle size below 100 nm, theoretically boosting absorption 2–3×, but peer-reviewed canine data is scant. The term differentiates marketing budgets more than pharmacology.
Building a Rotation Plan: Combining CBD With Functional Foods
CBD is not a silver bullet. Rotate in polyphenol-rich blueberries for oxidative stress, fermented kefir for gut biome diversity, and collagen-rich bone broth for joint matrix support. A M-W-F CBD treat schedule and functional toppers on alternate days prevents tolerance while keeping mealtime exciting for picky eaters.
Frequently Asked Questions
1. Will CBD treats make my dog high?
No. Hemp-derived CBD contains <0.3% THC, insufficient to produce psychoactive effects.
2. How long before I see results?
Anxiety relief may appear within 30–60 minutes; joint benefits typically build over 2–4 weeks of consistent dosing.
3. Can my puppy use CBD?
Veterinarians generally recommend waiting until 6 months of age unless a specific condition warrants earlier intervention.
4. Are there breed-specific risks?
Herding breeds with MDR1 gene mutations may be more sensitive to sedatives; start at the lowest dose and titrate carefully.
5. Will my dog test positive on a vet drug panel?
Routine urine screens do not look for cannabidiol, but full-spectrum treats could flag THC metabolites if testing for illicit substances.
6. Can I give CBD alongside glucosamine?
Yes. CBD and joint supplements are complementary; just monitor total milligrams to avoid stomach upset.
7. What if my dog refuses the treat?
Try crumbling over food or switching to an unflavored sublingual oil; palatability enhancers like hydrolyzed chicken liver often help.
8. How do I travel internationally with CBD?
Most countries restrict CBD; leave products at home and research local laws to avoid customs seizure or fines.
9. Is hemp seed oil the same as CBD oil?
No. Hemp seed oil offers omegas but zero cannabinoids; look for “cannabidiol” or “hemp extract” on the panel for actual CBD content.
10. Can CBD replace my dog’s prescription medications?
Never discontinue prescribed drugs without veterinary supervision; CBD may allow dose reductions but should be integrated, not substituted.